SARS-CoV-2 NSP12 associates with TRiC and the P323L substitution acts as a host adaption.

IMPORTANCE: SARS-CoV-2 has caused a worldwide health and economic crisis. During the course of the pandemic, genetic changes occurred in the virus, which have resulted in new properties of the virus-particularly around gains in transmission and the ability to partially evade either natural or vaccine-acquired immunity. Some of these viruses have been labeled Variants of Concern (VoCs). At the root of all VoCs are two mutations, one in the viral spike protein that has been very well characterized and the other in the virus polymerase (NSP12). This is the viral protein responsible for replicating the genome. We show that NSP12 associates with host cell proteins that act as a scaffold to facilitate the function of this protein. Furthermore, we found that different variants of NSP12 interact with host cell proteins in subtle and different ways, which affect function.

Biochemical analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Nsp13 helicase implicated in COVID-19 and factors that regulate its catalytic functions.

Replication of the 30-kilobase genome of SARS-CoV-2, responsible for COVID-19, is a key step in the coronavirus life cycle that requires a set of virally encoded nonstructural proteins such as the highly conserved Nsp13 helicase. However, the features that contribute to catalytic properties of Nsp13 are not well established. Here, we biochemically characterized the purified recombinant SARS-CoV-2 Nsp13 helicase protein, focusing on its catalytic functions, nucleic acid substrate specificity, nucleotide/metal cofactor requirements, and displacement of proteins from RNA molecules proposed to be important for its proofreading role during coronavirus replication. We determined that Nsp13 preferentially interacts with single-stranded DNA compared with single-stranded RNA to unwind a partial duplex helicase substrate. We present evidence for functional cooperativity as a function of Nsp13 concentration, which suggests that oligomerization is important for optimal activity. In addition, under single-turnover conditions, Nsp13 unwound partial duplex RNA substrates of increasing double-stranded regions (16-30 base pairs) with similar efficiency, suggesting the enzyme unwinds processively in this range. We also show Nsp13-catalyzed RNA unwinding is abolished by a site-specific neutralizing linkage in the sugar-phosphate backbone, demonstrating continuity in the helicase-translocating strand is essential for unwinding the partial duplex substrate. Taken together, we demonstrate for the first time that coronavirus helicase Nsp13 disrupts a high-affinity RNA-protein interaction in a unidirectional and ATP-dependent manner. Furthermore, sensitivity of Nsp13 catalytic functions to Mg2+ concentration suggests a regulatory mechanism for ATP hydrolysis, duplex unwinding, and RNA protein remodeling, processes implicated in SARS-CoV-2 replication and proofreading.

Structural basis for replicase polyprotein cleavage and substrate specificity of main protease from SARS-CoV-2.

The main protease (Mpro) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a key enzyme, which extensively digests CoV replicase polyproteins essential for viral replication and transcription, making it an attractive target for antiviral drug development. However, the molecular mechanism of how Mpro of SARS-CoV-2 digests replicase polyproteins, releasing the nonstructural proteins (nsps), and its substrate specificity remain largely unknown. Here, we determine the high-resolution structures of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro in its resting state, precleavage state, and postcleavage state, constituting a full cycle of substrate cleavage. The structures show the delicate conformational changes that occur during polyprotein processing. Further, we solve the structures of the SARS-CoV-2 Mpro mutant (H41A) in complex with six native cleavage substrates from replicase polyproteins, and demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 Mpro can recognize sequences as long as 10 residues but only have special selectivity for four subsites. These structural data provide a basis to develop potent new inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.

Spatio-temporal dynamics of intra-host variability in SARS-CoV-2 genomes.

During the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, large-scale genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 has been useful in tracking its spread and in identifying variants of concern (VOC). Viral and host factors could contribute to variability within a host that can be captured in next-generation sequencing reads as intra-host single nucleotide variations (iSNVs). Analysing 1347 samples collected till June 2020, we recorded 16 410 iSNV sites throughout the SARS-CoV-2 genome. We found ∼42% of the iSNV sites to be reported as SNVs by 30 September 2020 in consensus sequences submitted to GISAID, which increased to ∼80% by 30th June 2021. Following this, analysis of another set of 1774 samples sequenced in India between November 2020 and May 2021 revealed that majority of the Delta (B.1.617.2) and Kappa (B.1.617.1) lineage-defining variations appeared as iSNVs before getting fixed in the population. Besides, mutations in RdRp as well as RNA-editing by APOBEC and ADAR deaminases seem to contribute to the differential prevalence of iSNVs in hosts. We also observe hyper-variability at functionally critical residues in Spike protein that could alter the antigenicity and may contribute to immune escape. Thus, tracking and functional annotation of iSNVs in ongoing genome surveillance programs could be important for early identification of potential variants of concern and actionable interventions.

Development of SARS-CoV-2 packaged RNA reference material for nucleic acid testing.

Nucleic acid tests to detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus have been performed worldwide since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. For the quality assessment of testing laboratories and the performance evaluation of molecular diagnosis products, reference materials (RMs) are required. In this work, we report the production of a lentiviral SARS-CoV-2 RM containing approximately 12 kilobases of its genome including common diagnostics targets such as RdRp, N, E, and S genes. The RM was measured with multiple assays using two different digital PCR platforms. To measure the homogeneity and stability of the lentiviral SARS-CoV-2 RM, reverse transcription droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR) was used with in-house duplex assays. The copy number concentration of each target gene in the extracted RNA solution was then converted to that of the RM solution. Their copy number values are measured to be from 1.5 × 105 to 2.0 × 105 copies/mL. The RM has a between-bottle homogeneity of 4.80-8.23% and is stable at 4 °C for 1 week and at -70 °C for 6 months. The lentiviral SARS-CoV-2 RM closely mimics real samples that undergo identical pre-analytical processes for SARS-CoV-2 molecular testing. By offering accurate reference values for the absolute copy number of viral target genes, the developed RM can be used to improve the reliability of SARS-CoV-2 molecular testing.

Identification of genotypic variants and its proteomic mutations of Brazilian SARS-CoV-2 isolates.

The second wave of COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading over the world. Mechanisms behind the flee from current antivirals are still unclear due to the continuous occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 genetic variants. Brazil is the world's second-most COVID-19 affected country. In the present study, we identified the genomic and proteomic variants of Brazilian SARS-CoV-2 isolates. We identified 16 different genotypic variants were found among the 27 isolates. The genotypes of three isolates such as Bra/1236/2021 (G15), Bra/MASP2C844R2/2020 (G11), and Bra/RJ-DCVN5/2020 (G9) have a unique mutant in NSP4 (S184N), 2'O-Mutase (R216N), membrane protein (A2V) and Envelope protein (V5A). A mutation in RdRp of SARS-CoV-2, particularly the change of Pro-to Leu-at 323 resulted in the stabilization of the structure in BRA/CD1739-P4/2020. NSP4, NSP5 protein mutants are more virulent in genotype 15 and 16. A fast protein folding rate changes the structural stability and leads to escape for current antivirals. Thus, our findings help researchers to develop the best potent antivirals based on the new mutant of Brazilian isolates.

Emerging genetic diversity of SARS-CoV-2 RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) alters its B-cell epitopes.

The RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) plays crucial role in virus life cycle by replicating the viral genome. The SARS-CoV-2 is an RNA virus that rapidly spread worldwide and acquired mutations. This study was carried out to identify mutations in RdRp as the SARS-CoV-2 spread in India. We compared 50217 RdRp sequences reported from India with the first reported RdRp sequence from Wuhan, China to identify 223 mutations acquired among Indian isolates. Our protein modelling study revealed that several mutants can potentially alter stability and flexibility of RdRp. We predicted the potential B cell epitopes contributed by RdRp and identified thirty-six linear continuous and twenty-five discontinuous epitopes. Among 223 RdRp mutants, 44% of them localises in the B cell epitopes region. Altogether, this study highlights the need to identify and characterize the variations in RdRp to understand the impact of these mutations on SARS-CoV-2.

Longitudinal analysis of SARS-CoV-2 spike and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase protein sequences reveals the emergence and geographic distribution of diverse mutations.

Amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it has become increasingly important to monitor the mutations that arise in the SARS-CoV-2 virus, to prepare public health strategies and guide the further development of vaccines and therapeutics. The spike (S) protein and the proteins comprising the RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase (RdRP) are key vaccine and drug targets, respectively, making mutation surveillance of these proteins of great importance. Full protein sequences were downloaded from the GISAID database, aligned, and the variants identified. 437,006 unique viral genomes were analyzed. Polymorphisms in the protein sequence were investigated and examined longitudinally to identify sequence and strain variants appearing between January 5th, 2020 and January 16th, 2021. A structural analysis was also performed to investigate mutations in the receptor binding domain and the N-terminal domain of the spike protein. Within the spike protein, there were 766 unique mutations observed in the N-terminal domain and 360 in the receptor binding domain. Four residues that directly contact ACE2 were mutated in more than 100 sequences, including positions K417, Y453, S494, and N501. Within the furin cleavage site of the spike protein, a high degree of conservation was observed, but the P681H mutation was observed in 10.47% of sequences analyzed. Within the RNA dependent RNA polymerase complex proteins, 327 unique mutations were observed in Nsp8, 166 unique mutations were observed in Nsp7, and 1157 unique mutations were observed in Nsp12. Only 4 sequences analyzed contained mutations in the 9 residues that directly interact with the therapeutic Remdesivir, suggesting limited mutations in drug interacting residues. The identification of new variants emphasizes the need for further study on the effects of the mutations and the implications of increased prevalence, particularly for vaccine or therapeutic efficacy.

Analysis of a crucial interaction between the coronavirus nucleocapsid protein and the major membrane-bound subunit of the viral replicase-transcriptase complex.

The coronavirus nucleocapsid (N) protein comprises two RNA-binding domains connected by a central spacer, which contains a serine- and arginine-rich (SR) region. The SR region engages the largest subunit of the viral replicase-transcriptase, nonstructural protein 3 (nsp3), in an interaction that is essential for efficient initiation of infection by genomic RNA. We carried out an extensive genetic analysis of the SR region of the N protein of mouse hepatitis virus in order to more precisely define its role in RNA synthesis. We further examined the N-nsp3 interaction through construction of nsp3 mutants and by creation of an interspecies N protein chimera. Our results indicate a role for the central spacer as an interaction hub of the N molecule that is partially regulated by phosphorylation. These findings are discussed in relation to the recent discovery that nsp3 forms a molecular pore in the double-membrane vesicles that sequester the coronavirus replicase-transcriptase.

A 'deep dive' into the SARS-Cov-2 polymerase assembly: identifying novel allosteric sites and analyzing the hydrogen bond networks and correlated dynamics.

Replication of the SARS-CoV-2 genome is a fundamental step in the virus life cycle and inhibiting the SARS-CoV2 replicase machinery has been proven recently as a promising approach in combating the virus. Despite this recent success, there are still several aspects related to the structure, function and dynamics of the CoV-2 polymerase that still need to be addressed. This includes understanding the dynamicity of the various polymerase subdomains, analyzing the hydrogen bond networks at the active site and at the template entry in the presence of water, studying the binding modes of the nucleotides at the active site, highlighting positions for acceptable nucleotides' substitutions that can be tolerated at different positions within the nascent RNA strand, identifying possible allosteric sites within the polymerase structure and studying their correlated dynamics relative to the catalytic site. Here, we combined various cutting-edge modelling tools with the recently resolved SARS-CoV-2 cryo-EM polymerase structures to fill this gap in knowledge. Our findings provide a detailed analysis of the hydrogen bond networks at various parts of the polymerase structure and suggest possible nucleotides' substitutions that can be tolerated by the polymerase complex. We also report here three 'druggable' allosteric sites within the NSP12 RdRp that can be targeted by small molecule inhibitors. Our correlated motion analysis shows that the dynamics within one of the newly identified sites are linked to the active site, indicating that targeting this site can significantly impact the catalytic activity of the SARS-CoV-2 polymerase.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Establishment of a quantitative RT-PCR detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus.

BACKGROUND: The outbreak of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a public health emergency of international concern. Quantitative testing of SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) virus is demanded in evaluating the efficacy of antiviral drugs and vaccines and RT-PCR can be widely deployed in the clinical assay of viral loads. Here, we developed a quantitative RT-PCR method for SARS-CoV-2 virus detection in this study. METHODS: RT-PCR kits targeting E (envelope) gene, N (nucleocapsid) gene and RdRP (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) gene of SARS-CoV-2 from Roche Diagnostics were evaluated and E gene kit was employed for quantitative detection of COVID-19 virus using Cobas Z480. Viral load was calculated according to the standard curve established by series dilution of an E-gene RNA standard provided by Tib-Molbiol (a division of Roche Diagnostics). Assay performance was evaluated. RESULTS: The performance of the assay is acceptable with limit of detection (LOD) below 10E1 copies/µL and lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) as 10E2 copies/µL. CONCLUSION: A quantitative detection of the COVID-19 virus based on RT-PCR was established.

Evaluation of reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2.

The main strategy for response and control of COVID-19 demands the use of rapid, accurate diagnostic tests aimed at the first point of health care. During the emergency, an increase in asymptomatic and symptomatic cases results in a great demand for molecular tests, which is promoting the development and application of rapid diagnostic technologies. In this study, we describe the development and evaluation of RT-LAMP to detect SARS-CoV-2 based on three genes (ORF1ab, M and N genes) in monoplex and triplex format. RT-LAMP assays were compared with the gold standard method RT-qPCR. The triplex format (RdRp, M and N genes) allowed obtaining comparable results with de RT-qPCR (RdRp and E genes), presented a sensitivity of 98.9% and a specificity of 97.9%, opening the opportunity to apply this method to detect SARS-CoV-2 at primary health-care centers.

Nucleocapsid (N) Gene Mutations of SARS-CoV-2 Can Affect Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic and Impact False-Negative Results.

The current COVID-19 pandemic demands massive testing by Real-time RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction), which is considered the gold standard diagnostic test for the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. However, the virus continues to evolve with mutations that lead to phenotypic alterations as higher transmissibility, pathogenicity or vaccine evasion. Another big issue are mutations in the annealing sites of primers and probes of RT-PCR diagnostic kits leading to false-negative results. Therefore, here we identify mutations in the N (Nucleocapsid) gene that affects the use of the GeneFinder COVID-19 Plus RealAmp Kit. We sequenced SARS-CoV-2 genomes from 17 positive samples with no N gene detection but with RDRP (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) and E (Envelope) genes detection, and observed a set of three different mutations affecting the N detection: a deletion of 18 nucleotides (Del28877-28894), a substitution of GGG to AAC (28881-28883) and a frameshift mutation caused by deletion (Del28877-28878). The last one cause a deletion of six AAs (amino acids) located in the central intrinsic disorder region at protein level. We also found this mutation in 99 of the 14,346 sequenced samples by the Sao Paulo state Network for Pandemic Alert of Emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, demonstrating the circulation of the mutation in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Continuous monitoring and characterization of mutations affecting the annealing sites of primers and probes by genomic surveillance programs are necessary to maintain the effectiveness of the diagnosis of COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 promotes RIPK1 activation to facilitate viral propagation.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the ongoing global pandemic that poses substantial challenges to public health worldwide. A subset of COVID-19 patients experience systemic inflammatory response, known as cytokine storm, which may lead to death. Receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) is an important mediator of inflammation and cell death. Here, we examined the interaction of RIPK1-mediated innate immunity with SARS-CoV-2 infection. We found evidence of RIPK1 activation in human COVID-19 lung pathological samples, and cultured human lung organoids and ACE2 transgenic mice infected by SARS-CoV-2. Inhibition of RIPK1 using multiple small-molecule inhibitors reduced the viral load of SARS-CoV-2 in human lung organoids. Furthermore, therapeutic dosing of the RIPK1 inhibitor Nec-1s reduced mortality and lung viral load, and blocked the CNS manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 in ACE2 transgenic mice. Mechanistically, we found that the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of SARS-CoV-2, NSP12, a highly conserved central component of coronaviral replication and transcription machinery, promoted the activation of RIPK1. Furthermore, NSP12 323L variant, encoded by the SARS-CoV-2 C14408T variant first detected in Lombardy, Italy, that carries a Pro323Leu amino acid substitution in NSP12, showed increased ability to activate RIPK1. Inhibition of RIPK1 downregulated the transcriptional induction of proinflammatory cytokines and host factors including ACE2 and EGFR that promote viral entry into cells. Our results suggest that SARS-CoV-2 may have an unexpected and unusual ability to hijack the RIPK1-mediated host defense response to promote its own propagation and that inhibition of RIPK1 may provide a therapeutic option for the treatment of COVID-19.

Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Genomes from West Java, Indonesia.

West Java Health Laboratory (WJHL) is one of the many institutions in Indonesia that have sequenced SARS-CoV-2 genome. Although having submitted a large number of sequences since September 2020, however, these submitted data lack advanced analyses. Therefore, in this study, we analyze the variant distribution, hotspot mutation, and its impact on protein structure and function of SARS-CoV-2 from the collected samples from WJHL. As many as one hundred sixty-three SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences submitted by West Java Health Laboratory (WJHL), with collection dates between September 2020 and June 2021, were retrieved from GISAID. Subsequently, the frequency and distribution of non-synonymous mutations across different cities and regencies from these samples were analyzed. The effect of the most prevalent mutations from dominant variants on the stability of their corresponding proteins was examined. The samples mostly consisted of people of working-age, and were distributed between female and male equally. All of the sample sequences showed varying levels of diversity, especially samples from West Bandung which carried the highest diversity. Dominant variants are the VOC B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant, B.1.466.2 variant, and B.1.470 variant. The genomic regions with the highest number of mutations are the spike, NSP3, nucleocapsid, NSP12, and ORF3a protein. Mutation analysis showed that mutations in structural protein might increase the stability of the protein. Oppositely, mutations in non-structural protein might lead to a decrease in protein stability. However, further research to study the impact of mutations on the function of SARS-CoV-2 proteins are required.

In vitro selection of Remdesivir resistance suggests evolutionary predictability of SARS-CoV-2.

Remdesivir (RDV), a broadly acting nucleoside analogue, is the only FDA approved small molecule antiviral for the treatment of COVID-19 patients. To date, there are no reports identifying SARS-CoV-2 RDV resistance in patients, animal models or in vitro. Here, we selected drug-resistant viral populations by serially passaging SARS-CoV-2 in vitro in the presence of RDV. Using high throughput sequencing, we identified a single mutation in RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NSP12) at a residue conserved among all coronaviruses in two independently evolved populations displaying decreased RDV sensitivity. Introduction of the NSP12 E802D mutation into our SARS-CoV-2 reverse genetics backbone confirmed its role in decreasing RDV sensitivity in vitro. Substitution of E802 did not affect viral replication or activity of an alternate nucleoside analogue (EIDD2801) but did affect virus fitness in a competition assay. Analysis of the globally circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants (>800,000 sequences) showed no evidence of widespread transmission of RDV-resistant mutants. Surprisingly, we observed an excess of substitutions in spike at corresponding sites identified in the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (i.e., H69, E484, N501, H655) indicating that they can arise in vitro in the absence of immune selection. The identification and characterisation of a drug resistant signature within the SARS-CoV-2 genome has implications for clinical management and virus surveillance.

AGO CLIP-based imputation of potent siRNA sequences targeting SARS-CoV-2 with antifibrotic miRNA-like activity.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is associated with fatal pulmonary fibrosis. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can be developed to induce RNA interference against SARS-CoV-2, and their susceptible target sites can be inferred by Argonaute crosslinking immunoprecipitation sequencing (AGO CLIP). Here, by reanalysing AGO CLIP data in RNA viruses, we delineated putative AGO binding in the conserved non-structural protein 12 (nsp12) region encoding RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) in SARS-CoV-2. We utilised the inferred AGO binding to optimise the local RNA folding parameter to calculate target accessibility and predict all potent siRNA target sites in the SARS-CoV-2 genome, avoiding sequence variants. siRNAs loaded onto AGO also repressed seed (positions 2-8)-matched transcripts by acting as microRNAs (miRNAs). To utilise this, we further screened 13 potential siRNAs whose seed sequences were matched to known antifibrotic miRNAs and confirmed their miRNA-like activity. A miR-27-mimicking siRNA designed to target the nsp12 region (27/RdRP) was validated to silence a synthesised nsp12 RNA mimic in lung cell lines and function as an antifibrotic miR-27 in regulating target transcriptomes related to TGF-ß signalling. siRNA sequences with an antifibrotic miRNA-like activity that could synergistically treat COVID-19 are available online ( http://clip.korea.ac.kr/covid19 ).

A new qualitative RT-PCR assay detecting SARS-CoV-2.

The world is facing an exceptional pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2. To allow the diagnosis of COVID-19 infections, several assays based on the real-time PCR technique have been proposed. The requests for diagnosis are such that it was immediately clear that the choice of the most suitable method for each microbiology laboratory had to be based, on the one hand, on the availability of materials, and on the other hand, on the personnel and training priorities for this activity. Unfortunately, due to high demand, the shortage of commercial diagnostic kits has also become a major problem. To overcome these critical issues, we have developed a new qualitative RT-PCR probe. Our system detects three genes-RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), envelope (E) and nucleocapsid (N)-and uses the ß-actin gene as an endogenous internal control. The results from our assay are in complete agreement with the results obtained using a commercially available kit, except for two samples that did not pass the endogenous internal control. The coincidence rate was 0.96. The LoD of our assay was 140 cp/reaction for N and 14 cp/reaction for RdRp and E. Our kit was designed to be open, either for the nucleic acid extraction step or for the RT-PCR assay, and to be carried out on several instruments. Therefore, it is free from the industrial production logics of closed systems, and conversely, it is hypothetically available for distribution in large quantities to any microbiological laboratory. The kit is currently distributed worldwide (called MOLgen-COVID-19; Adaltis). A new version of the kit for detecting the S gene is also available.

Remdesivir MD Simulations Suggest a More Favourable Binding to SARS-CoV-2 RNA Dependent RNA Polymerase Mutant P323L Than Wild-Type.

SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) protein is the target for the antiviral drug Remdesivir (RDV). With RDV clinical trials on COVID-19 patients showing a reduced hospitalisation time. During the spread of the virus, the RdRp has developed several mutations, with the most frequent being A97V and P323L. The current study sought to investigate whether A97V and P323L mutations influence the binding of RDV to the RdRp of SARS-CoV-2 compared to wild-type (WT). The interaction of RDV with WT-, A97V-, and P323L-RdRp were measured using molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, and the free binding energies were extracted. Results showed that RDV that bound to WT- and A97V-RdRp had a similar dynamic motion and internal residue fluctuations, whereas RDV interaction with P323L-RdRp exhibited a tighter molecular conformation, with a high internal motion near the active site. This was further corroborated with RDV showing a higher binding affinity to P323L-RdRp (-24.1 kcal/mol) in comparison to WT-RdRp (-17.3 kcal/mol). This study provides insight into the potential significance of administering RDV to patients carrying the SARS-CoV-2 P323L-RdRp mutation, which may have a more favourable chance of alleviating the SARS-CoV-2 illness in comparison to WT-RdRp carriers, thereby suggesting further scientific consensus for the usage of Remdesivir as clinical candidate against COVID-19.

Long-chain polyphosphates impair SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication.

Inorganic polyphosphates (polyPs) are linear polymers composed of repeated phosphate (PO4 3-) units linked together by multiple high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. In addition to being a source of energy, polyPs have cytoprotective and antiviral activities. Here, we investigated the antiviral activities of long-chain polyPs against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In molecular docking analyses, polyPs interacted with several conserved amino acid residues in angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the host receptor that facilitates virus entry, and in viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). ELISA and limited proteolysis assays using nano- LC-MS/MS mapped polyP120 binding to ACE2, and site-directed mutagenesis confirmed interactions between ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 RdRp and identified the specific amino acid residues involved. PolyP120 enhanced the proteasomal degradation of both ACE2 and RdRp, thus impairing replication of the British B.1.1.7 SARS-CoV-2 variant. We thus tested polyPs for functional interactions with the virus in SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 and Caco2 cells and in primary human nasal epithelial cells. Delivery of a nebulized form of polyP120 reduced the amounts of viral positive-sense genomic and subgenomic RNAs, of RNA transcripts encoding proinflammatory cytokines, and of viral structural proteins, thereby presenting SARS-CoV-2 infection in cells in vitro.